TOMORROW

20 May TOMORROW

Posted at 14:34h in 2General studies by Homework Writer

The problem:

The heart of the research process

Practical Research

11th edition

Paul D. Leedy & Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Finding Research Projects

Research projects can be one of two types:

Basic research

Applied research

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Basic Research

Enhances basic knowledge of

Physical world

Biological world

Psychological world

Social world

Sheds light on historical, cultural, or aesthetic phenomena

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Applied Research

Addresses issues that have immediate relevance to current practices, procedures, and policies

Human decision making about practical problems

Questions in one’s immediate work environment (action research)

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

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Identifying a Suitable Research Problem

Address an important question

The answer should make a difference

Advance the frontiers of knowledge by

leading to new ways of thinking

suggesting possible applications

paving the way for further research in the field

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

When Considering A Research Problem

Select a research problem

for more than self-enlightenment

to do more than compare two sets of data

to contribute something new

to identify and interpret a relationship

that has more than a yes/no answer

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Finding a Legitimate Research Problem

Look around you

Read the literature

Seek the advice of experts

Attend professional conferences

Choose a topic that intrigues and motivates you

Choose a topic that others will find interesting and worthy of attention

Be realistic

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Stating the Research Problem

State the problem clearly and completely

Think through the feasibility of the project that the problem implies

Say precisely what you mean

Absolute honesty and integrity are the rule

Reflect an open mind about the solution

Edit your work

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Dividing the Research Problem Into Subproblems

Most problems are too big to tackle

Identify subproblems

A small number of completely researchable units

Subproblems add up to the totality of the problem

Subproblems clearly tie to the interpretation of the data

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying Subproblems

Take a paper-and-pencil approach

Write down the problem

Highlight key words/ideas to explore

Reorganize the ideas to identify the overall research design

Use brainstorming/mind-mapping software

Construct graphic networks of interrelated concepts, terms, and principles

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Resolving Pseudo-subproblems

Pseudo-subproblems are procedural issues

decisions must be made before resolving the research problem and its subproblems

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Delineating the Problem

Every problem has a setting to establish

State a priori hypotheses

Identify specific variables

Define the terms

State the assumptions

Identify delimitations and limitations

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Stating a priori hypotheses

Specify the research hypothesis

Educated guesses that researchers hope their data might support

Recognize the null hypothesis

“There will be no patterns in the data.”

Scientists support a research hypothesis by showing, statistically, that its opposite—the null hypothesis— is probably not true

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying Variables

Explicit identification of variables at the beginning of a study is most common in quantitative research, especially in experimental studies

Identification of variables helps the researcher choose

an appropriate research design

an appropriate statistical analysis

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying Variables

Variable: any quality or characteristic in a research investigation that has two or more possible values

Independent variable

researcher studies this variable as a possible cause of something else (may manipulate)

Dependent variable

potentially influenced by the independent variable, that is, may depend on the independent variable

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying Variables

Example:

The consistency of ice cream (dependent variable – DV) depends on the temperature at which it’s stored (independent variable – IV)

High temperatures cause ice cream to melt, whereas low temperatures cause ice cream to be solid

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Mediating Variables

Mediating variables help explain why an independent variable has a particular effect on a dependent variable

Independent variable influences mediating variable, which in turn influences the dependent variable

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Mediating Variables

For example

confidence level  effort  performance

confidence level (IV) influences effort (mediator)

effort (mediator) influences performance quality (DV)

high confidence  more effort  great performance

low confidence  less effort  okay performance

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Moderating Variables

Moderating variables influence the nature & strength of relationship between IV and DV

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Moderating Variables

For example:

family income during childhood  problems later in life

low income + high maternal warmth  fewer problems

low income + low maternal warmth  more problems

high income + low maternal warmth  more problems

income (IV) does NOT influence maternal warmth (moderator)

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Defining Terms

Each term should be defined as it will be used by the particular researcher

Operational definition: the definition of a characteristic or variable in terms of how it will be measured in the research study

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Defining Terms

Examples

self-confidence = score on a self-report questionnaire that has items such as “I can usually achieve what I set out to do” and “I think of myself as a smart person”

popularity = number of peers who specifically identify an individual as being a desirable social partner

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Stating assumptions

All assumptions that have a material bearing on the problem should be openly and unreservedly set forth

A statement of the assumptions is necessary for others to evaluate the conclusions of the study

A statement of the assumptions reveals what the researcher may be taking for granted with respect to the problem

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying delimitations

Delimitations are statements about what the researcher is not going to do.

The researcher must distinguish between what is and what is not relevant to the problem

For example, “I am interested in characteristics of X. I am not going to worry about influences on X.”

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Identifying limitations

The researcher must acknowledge weaknesses (limitations) that might cast doubt on results and conclusions

For example:

“My sample is small and possibly not representative”

“I have certain personal biases, such as X and Y, that may affect my observations and interpretation”

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Beginning a Research Proposal

In the first section of a proposal, you should outline:

The problem and its setting

Subproblems

A priori hypotheses

Variables

Assumptions, delimitations, and limitations

The importance of the study

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project

Have you conducted a thorough literature search to justify the time and effort expended on your research project?

Have you looked at your research problem from all angles to minimize unwanted surprises?

What research procedures will you follow?

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project

What research tools are available for you to use?

Can others read and understand your proposal?

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem

Conduct a thorough literature review

Try to see the problem from all sides

Think through the process

Discuss your research problem with others

Remember that your project will take time

Remember that the first draft of your proposal will almost certainly not be your last

Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11/e

Leedy & Ormrod

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20 May TOMORROW

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