Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts

Accommodations

a convenient arrangement; a settlement or compromise. (Ochs et al. p.74)

Achieved Status

A role or status chosen by the individual person. Differing from the ascribed status.

Adjacency Speakers

A unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers. Conversations: The Link between Words and the World (Monaghan p.155)

Affiliation

“The definition of affiliation is the act of connecting or associating with a person or organization” http://www.yourdictionary.com/affiliation#fViYz9huWDzfFASs.99

Affricate

“A complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant followed by a fricative; for example, the initial sounds of childand joy.”http://www.thefreedictionary.com/affricate

African American Vernacular English

Also identified as AAVE.

An English dialect used primarily by members of the African American culture. It is a completely functional version of English and is NOT slang.

i.e.: He bin runnin. :: He has been running. This indicates that the activity has been in action for an extended period of time, probably as a hobby or activity that the runner enjoys.

Agglutinating Language

a language that allows a great number of morphemes per word and has highly regular rules for combining morphemes.

Americanization

The Influence American culture has on the culture of other countries, such as culture, cuisine, technology, and politics

Anthropological Linguistics

the study of language and its relation to culture.

Anthropological Theory

A set of propositions about which aspects of culture are critical, how they should be studied, and what the goal of studying them should be; a set of propositions about which aspects of culture are critical, how they should be studied, and what the goal of studying them should be.

Archetype

Recurrent as a symbol or motif in literature, art, or mythology. In linguistic anthropology it focuses on the recurring symbols in literary works. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetypal_literary_criticism

Arcolect

A dialect that is considered to be formal and correct as when compared to another dialect. Usually tied to the speaker’s social status within a language.

Ascribed Satuts

A role or status based on birth, factors beyond ones control, or other peoples perceptions.

Example: A persons age, Gender, and or someones Race.

B

Bilingualism

A person who speaks two languages. A person who speaks more than two languages is multilingual.

Here is an interesting video on the benefits of bilingualism: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MMmOLN5zBLY

C

Call and Response

As Samy Alim states in Hip Hop Nation Language, call and response is the “manifestation of the cultural dynamic which finds audience and listener or leader and background to be unified whole” page 385.

The author pulls out the example that in hip hop, many artists such as rappers will do actions such as call and response. Alim makes the statement that during performances, the artist will call out in a way in where the audience will respond as a whole (page 385).

Cardinal Number

1: a number (as 1, 5, 15) that is used in simple counting and that indicates how many elements there are in an assemblage. (Merriam-Webster)

Caregiver

someone, usually the mother, whose primary concern is to ensure that children are able to display and understand behaviors appropriate to social situations. A majority that comes through language (Ochs and Schefflin 72).

Code-Switching

The use of more than one language variety.

For example, the Key and Peele Obama skit using the Luther translator

Source: Lecture on 02/02/17

Collaborative Ethnography

enthnography that gives priority to cultural consultants on the topic , methodology and written results of fieldwork.

Communication

The way in which information, ideas, and attitudes pass among individuals, groups, nations and generations. (Bauman p.4)

Community of Practice

Communities of co-present, joint engagement centered on specific activities that provide us with structured action, and through we craft social meaning. (Mendoza-Denton pg. 210)

Comparison

” is to compare your own communicative practice with the practice of other societies. It helps avoid “fallacy of normality”, the assumption that your own behaviors are so “normal” as to preclude any sort of analysis (Monaghan, p. 36).”

Constituent Structure

According to Professor Miller, A constituent is a word or group of words that can function as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. Constituents are typically subtle.

For example: The little boy fed the cat = He fed her.

Context

Context is the setting, relationship histories among participants, and the culture of the social as with an additional information that contributes and affects the analysis of the conversation. (Class notes 2/9/17)

conventional communication

Quotable gestures, sign language, spoken language and vocalization (lecture notes)

Conversational Analysis

Is concerned with the form of language used in a conversation.

Focuses on the many different changes in pitch, volume, timing, intonation, overlapping speech, nonstandard speech, distinct details that can be seen in transcripts, even the sequencing of taking turns to talk.

Conversational Analysts are interested in the timing and sequence of interactions + meaning and social business being accomplished in the setting.

Example:

A: “What’s up man” *this is an example of nonstandard language, it’s casual/slang

B: He:::::::y dude *this is an example of a greeting that is used, where the “hey” is exaggerated

( Leila Monaghan, Conversations: The Link between Words and the World)

Conversational Devices/Signals

Conversational signals can be almost anything. It includes from pacing of the conversation, to loudness, pitch, intonation, pausing, etc.

They are the basic tools of talking – the way we show what we mean hen we say (or don’t say) something.

These signals allow for the listener to react appropriately and add more substance to the conversation.

For example:

How do you know when the other person is finished talking?

Some key indicators may be

1. Stopping

2. Long pauses

3. Voice gets softer.. etc.

These indicators help us figure out when it’s our turn to speak.

HOWEVER!

If the habits are similar we are able to recognize speech patterns but if our habits are different we may start to talk before the person finishes (interrupting) or fail to take the turn when they are finished.

This is why a person can be seen as shy with a certain group of people because they’re not sued to their breaks and know when to interject into the conversation. But simultaneously might be outgoing and social to another group in which they know the conversation signals.

( Deborah Tannen, Conversational Devices )

Coordinate Systems

There are three types of coordinate systems:

1. Relative System: The relative system is dependent on the view point of the person. For example, Todd Hall is to the left of me when walking down towards the football field but when I walk up towards the library, Todd Hall is to the right of me.

2. Absolute System: This is centered on directions. For example, Campus Public Safety’s office is located on the north side of campus, heading east of Stadium Drive, just north of Heritage Hall.

3. Object-centered Intrinsic System

Creole

A fully developed language with origins in the combination of elements from two or more languages.

Cultural Hegemony

” the domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class who manipulate the culture of that society—the beliefs, explanations, perceptions, values, and mores—so that their imposed, ruling-class worldview becomes the accepted cultural norm; the universally valid dominant ideology, which justifies the social, political, and economic status quo as natural and inevitable, perpetual and beneficial for everyone, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefit only the ruling class.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_hegemony

Cultural Realativism

the notion that cultures should be analyzed with reference to their own histories and values rather than according to the values of another culture.

culture

certain manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectivity.

-different people who come from certain places have different views, which influences ones beliefs and values.

Culture Shock

feelings of alienation and helplessness that result from rapid immersion in a new and different culture.

cyclicity

the quality or state of being cyclic

D

Dead Language

A language that is no longer used for regular communication.

Examples: Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit

(www.dictionary.com/browse/dead-languages)

Deixis

A property of certain lexical items whose meaning requires contextual information to be complete.

Dialect

Language Variaties:

Variety of a language particular to a specific region or social group (e.g. class or ethnic group)

Two dialects of a language: Mutually intelligible or mutually unintelligible

Dialects could also be “high” or “low”

“High” would be used as a more proper, correct, or prestiges way. Whereas “low” would be considered as incorrect, informal, and or wrong.

Two different usages: a standard may be considered a dialect, or a dialect may be opposed to the standard.

Diglossia

A functional differentiation of two or more languages in regular use. Usually used in a situation in which there are different conditions within a community.

Discourse Marker

According to the Cambridge dictionary: “discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway, right, okay, as I say, to begin with. We use them to connect, organize and manage what we say or write or to express attitude,” (English Grammar Today © Cambridge University Press).

Norma Medoza mentions the study of discourse markers used by  the girls in her study in chapter 9 of “Homegirls”

Dual-Immersion

Where instruction is given in two languages.

ex: Enalgish and Spanish, with the goal of dual proficiency

Bad Language –  Bad Citizen P. 223 Battistella

Dude

A sign of inexpressiveness in which one word is use for any and all utterances. (Kiesling pg. 459)

Dude may be used on its own as an exclamation, to express both positive and negative reactions. (kiesling pg.464)

Example: Dude, it was like boys in the hood man aint no lie.

Dyad

“Is a group of two people, the smallest possible social group.” “..can be linked via romantic interest, family relation, interests, work, partners in crime, and so on. The relation can be based on equality, but may be based on an asymmetrical or hierarchical relationship.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyad_(sociology)

E

Ebonics

African American Vernacular English; often regarded as a language rather than a dialect of “standard English” (Rickford, John R. “What is Ebonics (African American English)?” Linguistic Society of America. Linguistic Society of America, n.d. Web. 12 Jan. 2017. <http://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/what-ebonics-african-american-english>.)

Emic

Perspectives from within a group under study, which includes the terms, concepts and symbols through which members of a group think and express themselves.

Enculturation

The act of someone acquiring characteristics or norms of a culture.

Like that of children that learn norms and behavior from they’re caregivers and through language.

English Immersion

Instruction entirely  in simplified English focusing on English skills and other academic subjects (Battistella 223).

Enthnocentrism

judging other cultures from the perspective of one’s own culture.  The notion that one’s own culture is more beautiful, rational, and nearer to perfection than any other culture.

Epistemology

The speakers attitude toward the source of knowledge, truth value, or validity of what they say.

Ethnocentric

Using one’s own culture as the standard of which to view and judge other cultures. Can also be defined as having the idea that one’s own culture is better or above another.

Ex: “Some people consider other languages as ugly or “primitive sounding” if the language makes use of sounds or sounds combinations that are those of the languages they themselves speak” (Salzmann et al pp.4).

Ethnography

The systematic study of people and cultures. Also referred as a “thick description” by Clifford Geertz (goodman, winking as social business, p.32)

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography

Ethnography of Speaking

Analyses that focus more on the meaning and social business of the conversation in relation to its wider context.

Ex) Hedges (um) and norms (explicit and implicit).

(Class notes 2/9/17)

Ethnology

the attempt to find general principles or laws that govern cultural phenomena.

Ethnonym

An ethnonym is a name applied to a given ethnic group.

Etic

The perspective of the person observing the culture from the outside.

Used in relation to the emic perspective.

Euphony

Quality of being pleasing to the ear, usually through a harmonious combination of words.

evidential markers

” used in their speech to indicate the source of speakers’ information (Ochs & Schieffelin Part 1, p.81). ”

Exemplar Theory

An instance of something in the mind; a member of the catergory.

Daniell, Maddie. “Exemplar Theory.” YouTube, 25 Nov. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-OiWOoQ7ZE. Accessed 7 Mar. 2017.

F

Felicity Conditions

set of requirements that have to be in place for an performative word to be effective. “In order to do things with words”

(class lecture and Penn.edu 2016)

fieldnotes

In my own view point, it is an actual brief writings on what was really happening.

Fresa

A slang social term used in mexico to describe a cultural stereotype of someone who is from upper-class Mexico

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresa

G

Genre

The type or category of communication that is characterized by its style, tone, and content.

Gesticulation

to make gestures, especially when speaking; an expressive gesture made in showing strong feeling or in enforcing an argument

gesticulation tends to occur unconsciously, and the gestures have no inherent meanings

“Gesticulation | Definition of Gesticulation by Merriam Webster.” Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, n.d. Web. 19 Jan. 2017.

Gesture-Calls

A type of signals used by (and common to) all of humanity as a mode of secondary communication. These include movements of our entire body, ranging from the way we hold ourselves while talking to those older than us, all the way to the slight twitch of our mouth when we are hiding a smile. Gesture-calls might not always be universal, and certain cultures might contain their own unique gestures; but in the broad sense, most people identify the meaning behind a smile versus a frown.

Gesture-calls are best used for portraying emotions, while we rely on spoken language to portray a more detailed and exact form of what we are trying to communicate.

(Smiles, Winks, and Words by Robbins Burling)

Glottochronology

a statistical technique that linguists have developed to estimate the date of separation of related languages.

Grammar

The whole system and structure of any language , usually consisting of syntax, morphology, and sometimes phonology and semantics.

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/grammar 

Grammatical Categories

Properties of items within the grammar of a language

Example: plurality, gender, tense, voice

(The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior (1939), Benjamin Lee Whorf; pg. 45)

H

Haptics

the analysis and study of touch

Hedges

Is a mitigating word, sound or construction used to lessen the impact of an utterance due to constraints on the interaction

Markman, Art. “What Do (Linguistic) Hedges Do?” Psychology Today, 20 Oct. 2012, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201210/what-do-linguistic-hedges-do. Accessed 5 Mar. 2017.

Hegemonic masculinity

The form of masculinity most valued in a society.

Heterosexism

fear of association with femininity and intimacy with other men.

Heterosexism450er0-

the way of speaking, by which the speaker takes in a relation to what they are saying or to“

Hip-hop

A culture sometimes defined as having four major elements: MCing (rapping), DJing (spinnin), breakdancin (streetdancing), and graffiti art (writing). (Alim 378).

hypercorrect

“overly correct”

(Thesaurus.com)

Labov, William. pg 341

I

Iconicity

Iconicity can be defined as “a relationship of resemblance or similarity between the two aspects of a sign: its form and its meaning. An iconic sign is one whose form resembles its meaning in some way” (Meir and Tkachman). For example, in ASL, the sign for a tree is made by placing your less dominant arm horizontally in front of you with your dominant arm placed vertically on top of your other arm, fingers outstretched and twisting as if to represent the branches of a tall tree; your arms representing the trunk and the ground. In this case the sign for tree is iconic in both form and meaning to an actual tree.

Iconicity is an antonym for arbitrary.

Meir, Irirt, and Oskana Tkachman. “Iconicity”. Iconicity – Linguistics – Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford      University Press, 27 Mar. 2014. Web. 18 Jan. 2017.

“Tree.” Baby Sign Language. N.p., 2017. Web. 18 Jan. 2017.

Illocutionary Act

One of three levels that a speech act can be analyzed by. The Illocutionary act focuses on the intended significance of the speech act; the type of socially valid action it represents,(lecture notes).

Inflected

1. Pase tense of inflect to change the form of a word to express a particular grammatical function or attribute. Such as the mood, person, number, case, and or gender.

Whorf page 45

Instrumentality

“Kind of language being used, such as English or Swahili, as well as the form of language, such as, speech, writing and signing”(Monaghan, Speaking of Ethnography, pg 35)

Intensifiers

It is a “linguistic term for a modifier that makes no contribution to the propositional meaning of a clause but serves to enhance and give additional emotional context to the word it modifies.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensifier

Intonation

Change of pitch in someone’s voice, used to convey different tones or emphasize certain words in a sentence. (Burling p.3)

Intra-sentential code switching

“the alternation in a single discourse between two languages, where the switching occurs within a sentence.”

http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Intrasentential_codeswitching

isogloss

“the dialect geographer carefully selected features from which to make a different kind of map… to indicate the boundary of the majority usage of (his) chosen words”.

Kretzschmar Jr. A. William, “Regional Dialets” pg 360

J

jotting

“A quickly written or brief note.”

(Thesaurus.com)

L

Language

The system of sounds, words, and sentences to which we give names like  “English”, “Zulu” or “Chinese”. (Burling pg.6)

Language Extinction

When a language is at risk of falling out of use by any existing community of speakers. (In class 3/9)

Language Loss

Language loss occurs when the language has no native speakers who will speak it as their primary language. (Class 3/9)

Language Socialization

People in different cultures have different ideas and expectations about children’s nature, temperament and capacities at different ages. Also, what makes a culturally and linguistically competent adult/or how well a person behaves around others and also in its own space.

Lexicography

a person who collects dictionaries

Lexicon

Vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge.

Linguistic Insecuity

The feelings of anxiety, self-consciousness, or lack of confidence in the mind of a speaker surrounding the use of their own language.(Labov pg.342)

Linguistic Insecurity

Refers to feelings of anxiety, self-consciousness, or lack of confidence in the mind of a speaker surrounding the use of their own language.

The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Store. 1977. Labov. pp. 342

Linguistic Relativity vs Linguistic Determinism

Linguistic Relativity is the weak view of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The weak view suggests that language only influences the way the speaker sees the world, or that “languages give rise to different types of habitual thought” (Whorf 43) but does not determine thought. By suggesting this it doesn’t limit or makes it “not possible to understand things in ways different from what our language predisposes to us;” (Whorf 43).

This is opposed to the strong view (Linguistic Determinism) which suggests that language structures or determines thought. “The ”real world” is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group” (Edward Sapir). Basically, every culture will look at the world differently due to their individual language and their perception of the world is limited in the language’s ability to express certain ideas and concepts.

*This is the way I understand these ideas as of now. Please correct if I am incorrect or am missing something.

Locutionary Act

One of three levels that speech acts can be analyzed by. This level focuses on the utterance itself and its meaning  “on the surface”  –what it appears to mean at the level of lexicon and syntax,( lecture notes).

M

macrocosm

:is a whole compound and complicated structure of a language

(http://www.dictionary.com/browse/complex?s=t)

pg 48 “thought world” by Benjamin Lee Whorf

Manualism

The method of deaf people using sign language to understand and communicate language. (Battistella, P.220)

Masculine solidarity

bonds of loyalty and sociality with other men, although they are conscious of being “too” close or bonded as may not be acceptable by society. Uses specific male speak like “dude” to ensure that both sides understand the bond between them. (class lecture week 8, also Pitt.edu 2017)

mass noun

: is not a quantity

e.g. pg 46 water, milk, sand, flour, meat, (by Benjamin Lee Whorf)

Metaphor

1. a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money); broadly :  figurative language (Merriam-Webster)

Metaphors

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object/action to which it is not literally applicable.

“The metaphors are those of spatial extension, i.e., of size, number (plurality), position, shape, and motion.”

(Whorf p.48)

Minimal Pair

Two words that differ in only one sound but have different meanings.

Mitigation

“The act of mitigating, or lessening the force or intensity of somethingunpleasant, as wrath, pain, grief, or extreme circumstances”http://www.dictionary.com/browse/mitigation

Morphene

a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g., in, come, -ing, forming incoming ).

Whorf p.45

Morphology

The study of the forms of words. (Salzmann et al pp. 5-6)

Multilingualism

The use of more than one language by a speaker and/or a given social context.

Example: Families who migrate to different areas of the world often adapt to the new languages as they adapt to the new cultures. For example, a family native to Columbia would speak the Spanish language, however if they move to North America, they will likely learn the English language. These families are multilingual (or bilingual). Immigration such as this has lead to America’s  multilingualism.

Mutual Engagement

1 of 3 components that defines a “community of practice”, which consists of any engagement between 2+ people which connects them. These can be face-to-face such as a common place of employment, or between two people who haven’t met, yet who share a mutual study/point of interest/ or end goal.

N

Nativist

The theory or doctrine that concepts, mental capacities, and mental structures are innate rather than acquired or learned.

nomic

:”depending on custom” how do they spell.

(Thesaurus.com)

Norms

A standard, or pattern of social behavior that is typical to an expected group, combining an idea and seeing an expectation about how things normally are in a society

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(social)) (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/norm)

O

Oralism

The method of deaf people learning to understand and communicate by speech with lip-reading. (Battistella, P.220)

Ordinal Numbers

A number designating the place (as first, second, or third) occupied by an item in an ordered sequence.

(https://www.merriam-webster.com, Ordinal Number)

Orthographic

The part of language study concerned with letters and spelling.

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/orthography

P

Paralinguistic Cues

Non-verbal elements like intonation, body posture, gestures, and facial expression that modify and add emphasis to the meaning of verbal communication that cannot be achieved solely through the limitation of “words”.

(Robbins Burling’s Smiles, Winks, and Words)

Performatives

they perform some action.

they do not describe some state of affairs to which the utterance pertains (Class lecture 3/2/17)

example: naming, marrying, etc

Perlocutionary

One of three levels with which a speech act can be analyzed. The perlocutionary level focuses on the actual effect or action carried out by the speech act, (lecture notes).

Personae

The narrator of or a character in a literary work, sometimes identified with the author.

“personae”. Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 7 Mar. 2017. <Dictionary.com

Phonemes

A set of speech sounds in any given language that differentiate one word from another.  The meaningless units of our phonological systems that we represent by the letters of our wretched spelling system.  These phonemes are in “contrast” with one another, which means they allow sentences to be in contrast with one another and can be joined to form the many thousands of words in contrast.  (Burling pg. 6)

Phonlogy

The series of sounds that a language uses to create its words. Each language does not use every single sound the human vocal cords can create however some languages use more or less phonemes when compared to another language.

Phonological Variables

Different sounds made in a certain language that does not change the meaning of a word/phrase itself. Phonological variables are said to be what gives rise to accents, such as not pronouncing the letter “r” in New York-style speaking.

Example: “Car” will still mean “Car” even if it is pronounced with a phonological variable (accent).

(William Labov, pg 334)

Phonology

Phonology is the sound system of a language (Burlings, Robbins pg. 6).Phonology is typically digital in a sense. In other words, the origin of phonology is found within digital realms.

Pidgin

originally referred to a simplified form of language developed for use between two or more groups lacking a common language.

Often referred to as a “trading language”.

Postmodernism

a theoretical position in anthropology that focuses on issues of power and voice.  Postmodernists suggest that anthropological accounts are partial truths reflecting the backgrounds, training, and social positions of their authors.

Postvocalic

A speech sound occurring immediately after a vowel.

A Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores 1977. Labov. pp.334

Powerless Language

Language used by both men and women that are prominent due to social position or specific context.

There are 7 types of powerless language types: Hedges, Hesitations, Intensifiers, Polite Forms, Tag Questions, Disclaimers and Deictic phrases.

Hedges signal anxiety/uncertainty: “Well,” “Uh” “Um..”

Hesitations appear in sentences: “I guess..” “Sort of” “Kind of”

Intensifiers exaggerate meaning of statement: “Very” “Really

Polite forms reveal social position: “Excuse me” “I’d appreciate it..”

Tag questions lessen the power of a statement” “This is fun, isn’t it?”

Disclaimers are phrases or words that add doubt or signal to a problem: “I know this is a really dumb question but…”

Deictic phrases indicate a fear of confrontation: “That man OVER THERE is being rude”

(William O’Barr and Bowman K. Atkin’s “Women’s Language” or “Powerless Language”?)

Pragmatics

form of semantics that deals with relationships of sentences to the envirnment in which they occur. (Class notes 2/9/17)

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar

Prescriptive grammar is what we are taught in school, the rules and proper usage of grammar in writing and speaking.

For example,

Me and Chris are going to the store. (Incorrect)

Chris and I are going to the store. (Correct)

Descriptive grammar is the analysis of what people actually say, rather than what we should say or write.

(Bad Language – Bad Citizens Edwin L. Battistella 2005).

Proposition 187 (California)

Proposition 187 was voted 59-41% in California on November 8th 1994.

It had 5 major sections

1. It required verified legal statuses from parents and students Kindergarten all the way through the university system AND it bars all illegal aliens from the Californias public education system.

2. ” All providers of publicly-paid, non-emergency health care services must verify the legal status of persons seeking services in order to be reimbursed by the state of CA.” (Golden 1994)

3. Requires all people looking to get Financial Aid must verify legal citizenship before receiving it.

4. “All service providers are required to report suspected illegal aliens to California’s Attorney General and to the INS, and police must determine the legal status of persons arrested” (Golden 1994)

5. Making or using false identification documents is a felony.

Source: https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=492

Psycholinguistics

The study of the relationship between language and thought, including the neurobiological dimensions of cognition or observation.  Much of the research is technologically practical and laboratory based, but a portion of it relies on detailed ethnographic studies of people, their language, and their behavior.  (Levinson pg. 58)

Psychological Perspective

This is the personal identity, highly specific, idiosyncratic qualities that make an individual unique. Certain assumptions on human behavior.

R

Rappin

one aspect of hip hop culture, consist of the aesthetic placement of verbal rhymes over musical beats, and it is this element that has predominated in hip hop cultural activity in recent years (Alim p.378)

Reflexive

To reflect upon something, look back at it.

Ex:  Art used to reflect upon society and culture and how it is compared to others. From the reading Five Principles…”These forms (art, play display, etc.) are especially reflexive instruments…” (Bauman, 28).

Register

Register often refers to language formality, but it could also mean the type of language used between groups of people. There are four types of registers, there is formal, informal, consultative, and intimate. Formal would include presentations, speeches, or perhaps frozen texts. Informal would include casual speech between two or more people. Consultative usually refers to a power dynamic in which participants have a specific role, for example, Teachers and students, Doctors and patients. Intimate refers to communication in which only the people speaking can understand, like inside jokes, or giving each other a certain look that means a specific thing, other people watching the conversation probably won’t understand what is going on.

https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/register 

rudimentary

represented an earlier stage of development. (Salzmann et al pp.4)

S

Sapir Whorf Hypothesis

the hypothesis that perceptions and understandings of time, space, and matter are conditioned by the structure of a lanugage.

Semantics

The meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text.

The meaning of what is said.

Semiology

Semiology is “the study of signs and symbols”

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/semiology

Slang

Refers to only vocabulary; usually short-lived, trendy terms that fade quickly

Social Condition

“The state of society as it exists or in flux.”

http://www.reference.md/files/D012/mD012924.html

Social Science Perspective

the social identity, or the set of group memberships, associations or aspirations that define an individual.

Social Stratification

“society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth, and social status, or derived power (social and political).”

Example: William Labov argues that in New York City, social stratification can be seen through differential pronunciation of the letter “r”.  This is also seen all around the world, claiming that you can tell where someone stands on the “social ladder” based off of how they speak or what type of accent they might have.

William Labov, page 334

Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification)

Socioeconomic Structure

According to The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979),

“The integrated system of production relations that determines the societal pattern of production.Societies may have one or more such structures, but in the latter case one socioeconomic structurewill dominate. Unifying and subordinating the other structures, the dominant structure defines thecharacter of the society and determines which socioeconomic formation the society belongs to. In this sense, the dominant structure serves as the foundation of society as a whole.”

Sociolinguist

Interested in analyzing language and language use within varying contexts.

To add, they study the effect of any and all aspects of society (cultural norms, expectations, context, way language is used and the effects of that language use on society).

(H. Samy Alim, Hip Hop Nation Language pg. 378)

Additional research on Google and Wiki

Sociolinguistic interview

A specialized kind of research methodology (Mendoza-Denton  p. 215).

SPEAKING model

S: Setting

P: Participants

E: Ends (social business)

A: Act sequence (order of events)

K: Key (tone of interaction – happy, sad, mad)

I: Instrumentality (the kind of language being used) *sign language, writing, English, Spanish

N: Norms (ordinary behavior in the setting) *example: In a club setting, people are more social and outgoing.

G: Genres (recognized ways of speaking) *from storytelling to joking to praying

The SPEAKING model helps us with writing our field notes and covering as much detail as possible for research.

Source: Leila Monaghan , Speaking of Ethnography pg. 2

Speech Act

An utterance considered as an action, particularly with regard to its intention, purpose, effect.

(Lecture Notes)

Speech Event

A type of communicative event in which speech is the main component.

Example: a meeting, wedding or funerals

Standardization

“the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments”

In his paper, Edwin Battistella explains how when America was first being formed, there was much debate about the future of the English Language. John Adams was pushing for standardization of the English language in order to avoid degradation of English usage and pronunciation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardization

Standards

a form of language generally recognized as the “correct”, “proper” or best, in comparison to other varieties, such as: speech styles, dialects, accents, etc.

Bourdieu’s idea of “legitimate language” is similar to this idea

Stratification

An arrangement or classification into different groups. As in the state of being divided into social classes.

(Language Acquisition and Socialization, Page 81)

Street political organization

a group formed largely by youth and adults of a marginalized social class which aims to provide it’s members with a resistant identity, an opportunity to be individually and collectively empowered, a voice to speak back to the dominant culture, a refuge from the stresses and strains of barrio or ghetto life and a spiritual enclave within which it’s own sacred rituals can be generated and practiced. ( Mendoza-Denton, p.78)

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Closely related to diction. (Literarydevices.net, Syntax)

ex:

Correct Syntax: People who text on their phone while watching a movie are very annoying

Incorrect Syntax: While watching a movie, people who text on their phone are very annoying.

(http://examples.yourdictionary.com/syntax-examples.html#xfZ2OxSX689Z7h8f.99)

T

Tag Question

a statement that is followed by a small question at the end. ( ELC Study Zone: Tag Question- University of Victoria)

Examples:

·  You came by the train, didn’t you?

·   It’s very windy today, isn’t it?

·   You can meet me at the station, can’t you?

·   You couldn’t give me a ride, could you?

Transcription

“the practice of writing down the exact wording of a conversation that has been previously recorded.” (Monaghan p.35)

Transcripts

Provides a record of what exactly was said, including vital information such as pitch, pacing, overlaps, etc. This allows ethnographers and linguist to look at cultural behaviors through language and interpersonal interactions (Monaghan, 31).

transitional bilingual education

“a program involving classes of students who share the same second language. Instructions in school subjects takes place in the native language but time is also spent on English (Battistella,p.223).”

Triangulation

The practice of looking at data from multiple perspectives. Speaking of Ethnography (Monaghan p.36)

Typology

A classification according to general type.

Source: Language Acquisition and Socialization: Three Developmental Stories and Their Implications

Elinor Ochs and Bambi B. Schieffelin.

U

Universal Grammar

“Theory of the language faculty, a common human attribute, genetically determined, one component of the human mind” Ochs & Schieffelin, Language Acquisition and Socialization: Three Developmental Stories, part 1, page 73

Utterance

A spoke word, statement, or vocal sound.

The action of saying or expressing something aloud.

An uninterrupted chain of spoken or written language, a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause.

EXAMPLE: So for dinner I ate chicken salad and then I ate some nachos as well as a piece of garlic bread and possibly 2 liters of soda while watching “That 70s Show” with my cat.

(Professor Miller’s Slide)

V

Vernacular

A language variety spoken by in ordinary or private life, sometimes associated with lower-class speakers. Generally used in contrast to a standard or high dialect of the language.

Source: Lecture on 01/31/17