18 Oct CORRELATION DISCUSSION
Read the “Test Yourself” section on p. 199 in Ch. 9 of Exploring Research.
Discuss your response with your classmates.
PART2-CORRELATION DISCUSSION:
Read the “Test Yourself” section on p. 207 in Ch. 9 of Exploring Psychology.
Discuss your response with your classmates.
PART3- LITERATURE REVIEW: Summarize what you have learned about the Literature Review process, this week.
Respond to one or more of the following prompts in one to two paragraphs
1. Provide citation and reference to the material(s) you discuss. Describe what you found interesting regarding this topic, and why.
2. Describe how you will apply that learning in your daily life, including your work life.
3. Describe what may be unclear to you, and what you would like to learn.
PART5-STEPS FOR CREATING METHODOLOGY: Using Figure 1.2 in Ch. 1 of Exploring Research, create a flowchart using Microsoft® Word or a similar program that helps you identify what research design to use for your research question.
RESOURCES FOR ASSIGNMENT 1 THROUGH 3:
Chapter 9 Nonexperimental Research: Descriptive and Correlational Methods
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN ABOUT IN THIS CHAPTER:
- • What survey research is as well as some of its advantages and disadvantages
- • The development and use of surveys
- • The value and validity of survey research
- • The importance and use of follow-up studies
- • The purpose and use of correlational research
- • How correlational studies are used
- • How to compute and interpret a correlation coefficient
In some ways, your work on the first eight chapters of Exploring Research has been done to prepare you for the next four, all of which deal with particular types of research designs or research methods. In this chapter, you will learn about nonexperimental research methods, which are ways of looking at research questions without the direct manipulation of a variable. Chapter 10 discusses another nonexperimental approach: qualitative methods. Why a separate chapter? Because the whole area of qualitative methods stands alone as a somewhat unique approach to asking and answering social and behavioral science research questions.So, let’s turn our attention to the techniques we will deal with here.For example, if you wanted to understand the factors that may be related to why certain undergraduates smoke and why others do not, you might want to complete some type of survey, one of the descriptive techniques that will be covered in this chapter. Or, if you were interested in better understanding the relationship between risk-taking behavior and drug abuse, perhaps the first (but not the last) step would be to conduct a correlational study in which you would learn about questions of a correlational nature. You would be examining the association between variables and learning about the important distinction between association (two things being related since they share something in common) and causality (one thing causing another).This chapter focuses on descriptive research questions, how they are asked and how they are answered. It’s the first chapter on methods before we move on to qualitative, true experimental, and quasi-experimental methods.
Descriptive Research
Although several factors distinguish different types of research from one another, probably the most important factor is the type of question that you want to answer (see the summary chart on page 00 in Chapter 1). If you are conducting descriptive research, you are trying to understand events that are occurring in the present and how they might relate to other factors. You generate questions and hypotheses, collect data, and continue as if you were conducting any type of research.Descriptive research describes the current state of some phenomenon.The purpose of descriptive research is to describe the current state of affairs at the time of the study. For example, if you want to know how many teachers use a particular teaching method, you could ask a group of students to complete a questionnaire, thereby measuring the outcome as it occurs. If you wanted to know whether there were differences in the frequency of use of particular types of words among 3-, 5-, and 7-year-olds, you would describe those differences within a descriptive or developmental framework.The most significant difference between descriptive research and causal comparative or experimental research (discussed in detail in Chapter 11) is that descriptive research does not include a treatment or a control group. You are not trying to test the influence of any variable upon another. In other words, all you are doing for readers of your research is painting a picture. When people read a report that includes one of the several descriptive methods that will be discussed, they should be able to envision the larger picture of what occurred. There may be room to discuss why it occurred, but that question is usually left to a more experimental approach.Although there are many different types of descriptive research, the focus of this discussion will be on survey research, and correlational studies in which relationships between variables are described.
Survey Research
The best application of sampling in theory and practice can probably be found in survey research. Survey researchers attempt to study directly the characteristics of populations through the use of surveys. You may be most familiar with the types of surveys done around election time, wherein relatively small samples of potential voters (about 1,200) are questioned about their voting intentions. To the credit of the survey designers, the results are often very close to the actual outcomes following the election.Survey research, also called sample surveys, examines the frequency and relationships between psychological and sociological variables and taps into constructs such as attitudes, beliefs, prejudices, preferences, and opinions. For example, a sample survey could be used to assess the following:
- • Parents’ attitudes toward the use of punishment in schools
- • Voting preferences
- • Neighborhood residents’ attitudes toward new parking restrictions
- • Adolescents’ perceptions of curfew enforcement
- • Use of drugs in high schools
- • A legislator’s views on capital punishment
The Interview
The basic tool used in survey research is the interview. Interviews (or oral questionnaires) can take the form of the most informal question-and-answer session on the street to a highly structured, detailed interaction between interviewer and interviewee. In fact, many of the points that were listed for questionnaires also apply to interviews. For example, although you need not be concerned about the physical format of the questions in an interview (because the respondent never sees them), you do need to address such issues as transitioning between sections, being sensitive to the type of information you are requesting, and being objective and straightforward.Interviews are much more challenging and difficult to do well than just discussing a topic with someone.Most interviews begin with what is called face-sheet information, or neutral information, about the respondent such as age, living arrangements, number of children, income, gender, and educational level. Such information helps the interviewer accomplish several things.First, it helps establish a rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee. Such questions as “Where did you go to college?” or “How many children do you have?” are relatively nonthreatening.Second, it establishes a set of data that characterizes the person being interviewed. These data can prove invaluable in the analysis of the main focus of the interview which comes later on in the survey.Interviews contain two general types of questions: structured and unstructured questions. Structured or closed-ended questions have a clear and apparent focus and call for an explicit answer. They are comprehensible to the interviewer as to the interviewee. Such questions as “At what age did you start smoking?” and “How many times have you visited this store?” call for explicit answers. On the other hand, unstructured or open-ended questions allow the interviewee to elaborate upon responses. Such questions as “Why were you opposed to the first Persian Gulf War?” or “How would you address the issue of teenage pregnancy?” allow for a more broad response by the interviewee. In both cases, the interviewer can follow up with additional questions.Interviews can be especially helpful if you want to obtain information that might otherwise be difficult to come by, including firsthand knowledge of people’s feelings and perceptions. For example, in a study conducted by M. L. Smith and L. A. Shepard (1988), interviews with teachers and parents were part of a multifaceted approach to understanding kindergarten readiness and retention. In this study, interviewing was combined with other techniques such as in-class observations and the analysis of important documents. These researchers put the interview results to good use when they examined these outcomes in light of other information they collected throughout the study.On the positive side, interviews offer great flexibility by letting you pursue any direction (within the scope of the project) with the questions. You could also note the interviewee’s nonverbal behavior, the setting, and other information that might provide valuable information. Another advantage of interviews is that you can set the general tone and agenda at your own convenience (to a point, of course).There is also a downside to interviews. They take time, and time is expensive. Interviewing 10 people could take 20–30 hours including travel time and such. Also, because interviews have less anonymity than, for example, a questionnaire, respondents might be reluctant to come forward as honestly as they might otherwise. Other disadvantages are your own biases and the lack of a standardized set of questions. A good interviewer will probe deeply for additional information, perhaps of a different type, than would another interviewer who started with the same questions. Asking follow-up questions is an excellent practice, but what do you do about the interview where probing did not lead to the same information and thus produced different results?
TEST YOURSELF
What do you think a primary advantage of an interview is over a more structured tool such as a questionnaire, and when might you want to use the interview technique?
Developing an Interview
The development of an interview begins much like that for any proposal for a research project. Your first step is to state the purpose of the interview by taking into account your goals for the project. Then, as before, you review the relevant literature to find out what has been done in the past and whether other interview studies have been conducted. You may even find an actual interview that was previously used and be able to use parts of that in your own research. This is a very common practice when researchers use the same interview, say, 10 years later to look for changes in trends.Second, select a sample that is appropriate for your study, both in characteristics and in size. If you want to know about feelings regarding racial unrest, you cannot question only white citizens—you need to address all minorities. Similarly, even if interviews take lots of time and effort, you cannot skimp on sample size with the thought that what is lost in sample size can be made up in richness and detail. It does not work that way.Next, the interview questions need to be developed. As you know by now, questions, whether structured or unstructured, need to be clear and concise without any hidden agenda, double negatives, 75-cent words that cannot be understood, and so forth. One of the best ways to determine the appropriateness of your interview is by field-testing it. Use it with people who have the same characteristics as the intended audience. Listen to their feedback and make whatever changes you find necessary.After the interview form is (more or less) finished, it is time to train the interviewers. Most of the traits you want in an interviewer are obvious: They should be polite, neatly dressed, uncontroversial in appearance, and responsible enough to get to the interview site on time. These qualities, however, are not enough. Interviewers must learn how to go beyond the question should the need arise. For example, if you are asking questions about racial discrimination, the respondent might mention, “Yes, I sometimes feel as if I am being discriminated against.” For you not to ask “Why?” and to follow up on the respondent’s answer would result in the loss of potentially valuable and interesting information. The best way to train is to have an experienced interviewer watch the trainees interview a practice respondent and then provide feedback.Finally, it is time to conduct the actual interviews. Allow plenty of time, and go to it. Do not be shy, but do not be too aggressive either.
The Ten Commandments of Interviewing
If you have worked hard at getting ready for the interview, you should not encounter any major problems. Nonetheless, there are certain things you should keep in mind to make your interview run a bit more smoothly and be more useful later, when it comes time to examine the results of your efforts.No one is perfect, but you should strive to adhere to these 10 guidelines about interviewing as well as you can.With that in mind, here are the 10 commandments of interviewing (drumroll, please). Keep in mind that many, if not all of these, could also be classified as interviewer effects, in which the behavior of the interviewer can significantly affect the outcome.
- 1. Do not begin the interview cold. Warm up with some conversation about everything from the weather to the World Series (especially if there is a game that night and you know that the interviewee is a fan). Use anything you can to break the ice and warm up the interaction. If you are offered coffee, accept (and then do not drink all of it if you don’t want to). If you do not like coffee, politely refuse or ask for a substitute.
- 2. Remember that you are there to get information. Stay on task and use a printed set of questions to help you.
- 3. Be direct. Know your questions well enough so that you do not have to refer constantly to your sheet, but do not give the appearance that you are being too casual or uninterested.
- 4. Dress appropriately. Remove five of your six earrings if you feel wearing six would put off respondents. No shorts, no shirt, no interview, got it?
- 5. Find a quiet place where you and the interviewee will not be distracted. When you make the appointment for the interview, decide where this place will be. If a proposed location is not acceptable (such as “in the snack bar”), then suggest another (such as the lounge in the library). Call the day before your interview to confirm your visit. You will be amazed at how many interviewees forget.
- 6. If your interviewee does not give you a satisfactory answer the first time you ask a question, rephrase it. Continue to rephrase it in part or in whole until you get closer and closer to what you believe you need.
- 7. If possible, use a tape or digital recorder. If you do, you should be aware of several things. First, ask permission to tape the session before you begin. Second, the tape recorder should not be used as a crutch. Do not let the tape run without your taking notes and getting all the information you can while the interview is underway.
- 8. Make the interviewee feel like an important part of an important project, not just someone who is taking a test. Most people like to talk about things if given the chance. Tell interviewees you recognize how valuable their time is and how much you appreciate their participation. Be sure to promise them a copy of the results!
- 9. You become a good interviewer the same way you get to Carnegie Hall: practice, practice, practice.Your first interview, like everyone else’s, can be full of apprehension and doubt. As you do more of these, your increased confidence and mastery of the questions will produce a smoother process which will result in more useful information.
- 10. Thank the interviewee and ask if he or she has any questions. Offer to send (or call) the interviewee a summary of the results of your work.
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