14 May MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION: STRATEGIES AND APPLICATIONS, 5TH EDITION
Managerial Communication: Strategies and Applications, 5th Edition
Chapter Eight
Nonverbal Communication Page 180
What you do speaks so loudly that I cannot hear what you say.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson, American essayist and poet
Understanding the importance of nonverbal communication is often difficult because it is such a natural part of any managerial interaction. To appreciate the contribution nonverbal communication makes to managerial communication, imagine yourself at a meeting with six others discussing an upcoming event—say the opening of a new facility for your company. It is a meeting like any number you have attended before, yet it is radically different because you cannot see the others. Something keeps you from this. It could be a fabric veil, fog, wooden panels—you decide. Your location is also a puzzle. Is it the boardroom for the corporation, or is it a meeting room just anywhere? How important is this meet- ing in the whole scheme of things? Your environment provides no clues. In addi- tion, you cannot really hear the others very well. All voices have been altered by the device used during investigatory reports on television. You can hear the words, but the voices have little or no character. The words are slowed down and slurred to some extent.
You are all seated in the same room, but because of the rooms setup, you can- not see who is seated where—who is at the head of the table (perhaps you are), and who is at the sides, not even who is seated next to whom. While you and several others flew in to attend the meeting, you did not have a chance to shake hands before the meeting began. In fact, today you have not seen the others or what they are wearing. Are they dressed as well as you are, or are they dressed informally? The only communication possible during the meeting is what you can get from you and the six others talking.
Unfortunately, even that part of the communication process is a challenge. You verbally trip over each other as the meeting proceeds since you have no efficient way to signal whose turn it is to speak. In addition, because speak- ers must identify themselves before speaking, the interactions take longer than usual. Furthermore, you must keep these verbal identities in mind as you listen because you have no visual or tactile cues to go on. As the meeting progresses, whenever you contribute, you are unsure of all but the verbal reac- tions because you cannot see the shrugs, posture shifts, or expressions on the other faces.
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The interaction is also lengthened by the need to evaluate each remark for intent. Did he mean that ironically? Was she being sarcastic? Was that last remark meant as a joke? The audio scrambler makes quick judgments on these fine points nearly impossible. And while you can hear the voices, which voice belongs to whom? Someone suggests that all the employees in the store dress up as clowns. You are just about to say “ridiculous” when you check yourself—be careful, maybe the boss said that.
You know the meeting is scheduled to last two hours, but because you had to surrender your watch at the door, you have no idea about the time, although it seems an eternity. You know the agenda for the meeting, but are you going to be able to cover all the items in the time allotted? Are you giving enough time to each item? Are you going to get out of the meeting and find that only half the time has elapsed? Whatever the case, you wish you were out of the meeting now.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal factors are clearly a crucial element of managerial communica- tion. Without nonverbal communication as a source of information, most of the richness and much of the meaning in messages would be lost. In many cases, conversations would be complicated by the need to repeat messages for clarity, and the time required would multiply enormously.
Nonverbal communication accompanies oral and, by logical extension, writ- ten messages, while consisting of the signals delivered through means other than verbal. In short, it includes everything but the words. Managers send, receive, and interpret nonverbal messages in the same way they send, receive, and interpret verbal ones. The same communication dynamics come into play as the sender intends (although often unconsciously) to send a message and chooses some medium through which to do so (a gesture, for example) that receivers perceive and interpret just as they do with verbal messages. Nonverbal communication may bear a clear meaning in itself, but often it serves as an adjunct to the spo- ken words, adding nuance in one place and clarity in another. At other times, this complex source of messages may even contradict the words being spoken.
Nonverbal communication is an important part of our daily managerial interactions.1 While the extent of the nonverbal aspect varies from interaction to interaction, one set of oft-cited statistics shows that 55 percent of a message comes from the speakers appearance, facial expression, and posture, while vocal aspects deliver 38 percent, and the actual words deliver only 7 percent.2 Nonverbal communication is a rich and complex source of communication data, and this chapter provides an overview of the areas relevant to the manage- rial function. But first, three generalizations about nonverbal signals should be stressed here. While the first two apply to most other signals, it helps to keep them in mind when interpreting nonverbal communication.
First, with the exception of so-called emblems, nonverbal signals rarely have one set meaning. Rather, they usually add to the messages meaning, as shown in the following section of this chapter.
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Second, nonverbal signals vary from culture to culture, and region to region, in their meaning. Nonverbal signals derive from experiences within the commu- nication environment (cultural, regional, or social) and are generally dispersed throughout it.3 It is not enough merely to translate the verbal language; the nonverbal must be expressed as well.4 The Japanese, for example, usually present a noncontroversial demeanor and are excessively polite by North American stan- dards. In negotiation, the accompanying nonverbals can create confusion across cultures.5 In cross-cultural situations, in fact, while the verbal takes on greater importance, knowing and using basic nonverbal signals—for example, bowing in South Korea—can communicate respect.6
Third, when nonverbal signals contradict verbal ones, the nonverbals are usu- ally the ones to trust. When verbal and nonverbal disagree, credibility can suffer.7 A speaker who says “Im delighted to be here” while fidgeting nervously with his notes and glancing at the ceiling is perceived as lying. Nonverbal signals can provide valuable clues about the truth of a message.
The law enforcement community provides a contemporary example of non- verbal behaviors importance. When attempting to identify terrorists and crimi- nals in public places such as airports and subways, officials are trained to “read” suspects body language. The technique is called behavior detection and is rooted in the notion that people convey emotions such as fear in subconscious gestures, facial expressions, and speech patterns.8 Since the September 11, 2001, attack on the U.S., behavior detection has been adopted by police, the Transportation Security Administration, and other authorities at over 40 airports, universities, and mass transit systems.
Telling people how to dress, talk, and even move is a far easier task than putting it all into play in ones life. While we can read about the importance of smiling behavior, for example, how much is too much? Women and men aspiring to be managers can view excellent models for nonverbal behavior on business- oriented TV programs. To get the maximum impact of the nonverbal elements in the conversations (with the exception of vocal style), watch these programs with the sound turned off. Not only do they show the kinds of gestures leaders make, but they also generally reflect current appropriate dress.
THE FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL CUES
Nonverbal communication is a broader concept than many realize. It is far more than just gestures and eye contact. A simple definition already offered is that in managerial interactions, nonverbal communication is everything but the words. A more precise definition is that offered
by Harrison, a leading expert, who said it is “the exchange of information through nonlinguistic signs.”9 These nonlinguistic signs are like any kind of sign in communication in that they are something tangible capable of bearing meaning, just as linguistic signs are. They differ in that they are nonverbal.
Even color, and how its presented in the context of a message, can serve as a nonlinguistic sign. Some studies have looked at the impact colors have
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on cognitive performance. Researchers at the University of British Columbia conducted tests with 600 people to determine the effects of the colors blue and red. Red groups did better on tests of recall and attention to detail. Participants in the blue groups tested better with skills requiring imagination and creativity.10 So if your team is tasked with brainstorming for a new product or service, you may want to have them meet in a room with blue walls.
Depending on the culture, color is a nonlinguistic sign of certain emotions. For instance, Western brides generally wear white, but Eastern brides wear red. In China, white is a sign of bereavement and loss, just as black is in the U.S.
A study of emotional responses to cell phone ads demonstrates how color creates different emotions in different cultures. Thirty-two people from six cultures (Finland, Sweden, Taiwan, India, China, and the U.S.) were asked to interpret a Nokia ads external characteristics. The predominant blue and white colors, recognized by the Finnish respondents as their countrys flags colors, provoked a positive impression. Further, the Finns found the colors “reliable,” “natural,” “trustworthy,” and “comfortable.” By contrast, the Chinese and Taiwanese respondents said that white is a funereal color for them, creating a negative impression. The Swedes recognized that blue and white are “Finnish colors” and rejected them as “boring” and “cold.” The respondents from India thought the colors warm and summery. The U.S. respondents were inconsis- tent about whether the blue and white colors were warm or cold, summery or wintery. Interestingly, several Americans connected the blue and white colors to “unlimited freedom” and “innovation,” which no informants from other cultures mentioned.11
Unfortunately, nonverbal communication can result in frustratingly inexact interpretation. Scholars have carefully studied nonverbal communication but have only scratched the surface of the topic in many areas. If placed in the proper perspective, it can be a valuable source of cues in communication situations.
Burbinster sees six functions for nonverbal communication:12
• Complementing • Accenting • Contradicting • Repeating
• Regulating • Substituting
Nonverbal signals that complement the verbal message repeat it. Typically, these signals accompany what is being said. For example, a technician explaining the varying gap widths in faulty components in a heating system might hold up her thumb and index finger and vary the gap between them as she discusses the problem. Or a supervisor welcoming a subordinate back after a lengthy illness might give him a warm handshake to stress how pleased he is at the others return.
Those nonverbal signals that accent call our attention to a matter under discussion. A common example is a person pounding on a desk as she makes
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an important point. People may also use vocalics, the nonverbal aspects of the voice itself, to highlight a point. Someone differentiating between one choice and another might say “I want this one and not that.”
The nonverbal signals that contradict are less obvious. These are usually sent unintentionally by the subconscious to say nonverbally the opposite of what is being said verbally. Either subtly or obviously, nonverbal cues will often tell the careful observers the truth when the verbal cues dont. This complex area of nonverbal communication will be discussed later under the heading “Nonverbal Signs of Deception.”
Repeating occurs when we have already sent a message using one form of communication and wish to emphasize the point being made. It differs from complementing in that it is not done simultaneously with the verbal comment. For example, a demonstration following a verbal description of a tools use is a nonverbal repetition.
Regulating, the fifth purpose Burbinster suggests, is a subtle and important one. Regulating occurs during conversations to signal to our partner to “slow,” “stop,” and even “wait your turn” and let the other person know when we are ready to listen or to speak. Watch an ongoing conversation and you will quickly spot a variety of these cues. A speaker who is not finished with his point but is being interrupted might speak louder or faster to keep his turn (thus using vocalics). Another might hold up her hand to say “not yet, let me finish.” On the other hand, a speaker will usually look directly at the listener to indicate that the listeners turn is imminent.
Substituting is a less common nonverbal signal than the others. When we cant send a message by verbal cues, we might choose to use nonverbal ones— especially emblems, which will be discussed in the next section on movement and gestures—to get the point across to our receiver. A supervisor visiting a loud factory might use the “OK” sign to signal an employee. This will likely be more effective than something shouted.
From a theoretical perspective, nonverbal communication also serves another important function: communication redundancy. This concept refers to the phenomena built into any language system that combat the effects of noise. It simply means that much of the meaning of a message can be deduced from other elements in the message that have already appeared. The TV game show Wheel of Fortune is an example of redundancy in that not every word or letter must be on the game board before one can guess the correct phrase.
While part of a message delivers new information, much of it exists to ensure the points being made are understood. Far from being a negative phenomenon, communication redundancy is vitally important because it helps ensure that our message gets past the various barriers that environmental, organizational, or interpersonal elements erect. When a message is made more redundant, that is, when the information in it has been made more predictable to the receiver, the message has a greater chance of transferring the meaning the sender intends it to convey.
Every communication system is redundant. Verbal languages build in redun- dancy through a variety of means including grammar and syntax. Most of
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the functions addressed by nonverbal communication serve in some way as redundancy. Thus, as we discuss an issue with someone, we will use nonverbal signals to complement, accent, repeat, and even substitute to get a point across. This may be done without even thinking about it. Even when a nonverbal signal contradicts the verbal, additional nonverbal signals are likely to follow to under- score the contradiction.13 Thus, a shake of the head denying a request is followed by a smile to indicate goodwill.
Some nonverbal behaviors are innate, others are learned from the community around us, and some are mixed. For instance, eye blinking patterns and blushing appear to be innate—universal involuntary behaviors that occur in certain communication situations. Other cues such as the eyewink and the thumbs-up are learned, and they signal different meanings in different cultures. A third group of nonverbal behaviors (laugh, smile) is mixed in that they occur in every culture, but they can be controlled and their meanings can change. In some Asian cultures, for example, a small laugh may occur naturally but may convey discom- fort and submission rather than affiliation and pleasure.
This chapter now explores several key areas of nonverbal communication and suggests how managers can use them to their advantage. It also looks at how nonverbal indications of deception can be detected through careful observation.
MOVEMENT
Say “nonverbal communication” to most people, and they probably think of movement, which is technically kinesics. Nonverbal communication consists of far more than just one general category, but movement is the most studied of the categories. It includes gestures as well as posture.
Gestures may include emblems, illustrators, regulators, affect displays, and adapters.14 While people usually use gestures without thinking, a conscious awareness of them can help a manager communicate more efficiently. An under- standing of, and training in, effective signals can open up the possibility of our strategic conscious use of them.
Earlier, we noted that nonverbal signals usually suggest meaning; they do not give direct meaning. Emblems are an exception in that they actually stand for something else. The OK sign is one example; another is the “time out”—one palm held at a right angle to the other.
Illustrators complement verbal communication by providing an example of, or reinforcing, what is being said. When a person is trying to explain an item that is not present, what is more natural than drawing it in the air?
Regulators are gestures that both subtly and obviously control what a speaker says. They arise from a variety of sources, including the hands—for example, when one holds up the hand palm outward to keep another from interrupting. Turning the palm toward you and wiggling the fingers is a beckoning gesture in the United States. We also regulate to draw some speakers out and rein others in with gestures.
The affect display is more complex than most gestures and involves several parts of the body. For example, suppose you are talking to someone who has
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a scowl on his face as he sits up straight but is turned slightly away from you. His arms cross his chest, and you have little doubt this person doesnt like the idea under discussion. The affect display signals to another person what we are feeling and can show pleasure as well as anger, boredom as well as interest. Reading such nonverbal signals from others is rarely a problem. The challenge lies in controlling these within ourselves in some situations. We may not always want to show what we are feeling, so we must control these nonverbals, particu- larly if it could affect our current communication strategy.
The adapter may be the least appreciated source of kinesic messages; however, it can be quite important. In many situations, when one behavior might be inappropriate, the body will adapt by sending signals that would provide a solution, if one could only implement it. For example, the person wishing to leave, but unable to do so, might start to move his crossed leg in imitation of walking. Another person under stress may begin to twist the paper clip she is holding as a
socially acceptable substitute for what she would like to do with the person she is reprimanding. That employee being reprimanded may wrap his arms around himself as a sort of substitute hug to provide the comfort he needs at that moment. A nervous speaker may rock to calm herself. Adapters often appear as a pattern of seemingly irrelevant nonverbal signals, but to the careful observer their presence may suggest discomfort. Similarly, in stressful situations when projecting an image of self-control is crucial, be aware of the nonverbal sig- nals you may be sending. Keeping a calm face while clenching your fists may reveal more than intended.
While gestures may be the most obvious example of meaningful movement, other kinesic behaviors contribute significantly to message meaning as well. Take posture, for example. Slumping, leaning, standing with weight on one leg, and rounding the shoulders all connote weakness and lack of confidence. By contrast, standing at military “attention” (head up, shoulders back, chest forward, and weight evenly distributed on both feet) connotes power, alertness, and confi- dence. Managers who have mastered the elements of good posture often are attended to even before they begin to speak.
Another example of kinesic communication is head movement. As mentioned in the previous chapter, a good listener often indicates that he is paying atten- tion by nodding and/or tilting his head. On the other hand, a speaker who nods or tilts his head while talking may be interpreted as unsure of himself or even submissive.
Mimicry is a form of gesturing where two people mirror each others movements. It is typically an unconscious and automatic behavior triggered by an abundance of mirroring neurons in the brain. Mimicry has been shown to positively influence the flow of conversation, as well as mutual liking. The back and forth exchange of smiles, head nods, arm crossing, and hand movements creates this social circuit that leaves two people feeling better and better about the other per- son. Studies have proven this to be true in salary negotiations and job interviews, where ample mimicking correlated to strong feelings of trust and likeability.15
We also communicate meaning by the way we walk. When a speaker strides quickly to the platform, she seems energetic, bold, and in command of the
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situation. Her credibility is enhanced by this nonverbal element. However, if she walks around while speaking, or perhaps sways, rocks, or shifts her weight from foot to foot repeatedly, her impression is diminished.
To summarize, movement is a very important category of nonverbal com- munication. We pay attention to various parts of a communicators body— head, trunk, arms, legs—as we watch and listen, drawing inferences from their movements. A list of common interpretations of kinesic cues appears in Table 8–1. A cautionary note: As you will read in Chapter 9, our culture defines
both verbal and nonverbal behavior, so keep in mind that the “mean- ings” of the kinesic cues in the table may change from culture to culture. For example, head nodding is a sign of affirmation in the United States, but its a sign of disagreement in the South Slavic states, Iran, and Sri Lanka. Managers in any culture must attend to kinesics when they communicate so that their body language contributes to, rather than contradicts or detracts from, the intended meaning.
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SPATIAL MESSAGES
Proxemics refers to the space around us and how we and others relate to it. Space and distance can reveal much and merit careful attention. Most people hearing “proxemics” think only of personal space, the personal “bubble” surrounding a person. That is a good place to start, but the concept encompasses far more than just that.
Spatial Zones
Edward Hall studied use of personal distances and determined that Americans have four arbitrarily established proxemic zones, described in Figure 8–1, in which we interact.16 Strategic managers are aware of these zones and appreciate how they and others react when their spaces are invaded.
Our language suggests we all are aware of personal space to some degree. We talk about someone “keeping his distance,” or we complain when we per- ceive others “invading our space,” or say “They are crowding me on this issue” when in fact what they are doing has little to do with territory. When someone is pressing another on an issue, the other person may respond, “Give me breathing room,” or less politely, “Keep out of my face.”
In the United States, businesspeople generally operate within four zones: intimate, personal, social, and public. In the discussion that follows, keep in mind that the figures are averages. They reflect the general culture, situational
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mandates, and the relationship between the parties. A number of factors enter into any interpersonal exchange. These can include personal appearance, culture, gender, and age. Thus, we may react differently to a tall person compared to a short person, and may draw nearer to an attractive person than to another who is less attractive.17
As discussed later in Chapter 9, “meanings” for nonverbal behaviors differ from culture to culture. In the United States, the intimate zone ranges from physi- cal contact to roughly 1.5 to 2
feet. It is reserved for those who are psychologically close. When it is invaded by others, especially for more than a moment, a person usually feels uncomfortable and is likely to draw back or put up some sort of bar- rier, although often without consciously knowing why.
The personal zone extends from the edge of the intimate zone out to roughly 4 feet. Americans reserve it for close friends but permit others to enter it tempo- rarily during introductions. Watch as two strangers come together for an intro- duction. As they shake hands, they will often stand with one leg forward and the other ready to back up. Then, when the greeting is over, both will usually retreat into the next zone. Cooperating on a task or simultaneously studying a document may bring people into their personal space, but they typically compensate by not making eye contact.
The next area is the social zone. It extends from about 4 feet to 12 feet and is the space in which we would like to conduct much of our daily business. Relationships between managers and their employees might begin in this area and continue for a time. They will often move into the personal zone once trust has developed, but this takes time.18 In the U.S. culture, the public zone extends beyond 12 feet and reflects the distance at which most would like to keep strang- ers. Little communication of a business nature takes place in this zone. Perhaps the only spoken communication that occurs is the public speech. We see the for- mal institutionalized reflection of this distance in the arrangement of public audi- toriums or even in the layout of many political rallies. Even if the latter is not too crowded, the audience will often keep its distance.
For managers, the value of understanding spatial zones is clear. An obser- vant communicator can gauge the relative warmth that exists in a relationship by the distances individuals keep during interactions. As trust grows, distances generally diminish. Thus, allies sit next to each other in meetings. However, other factors determine spatial differences as well. Lets consider some of these.
Spatial Differences
As we have said, proxemic zones vary from culture to culture. For example, busi- nesspeople in many South American and Arab countries typically interact with people at far closer ranges than do U.S. businesspeople. Often, when people from the United States interact with individuals from these cultures, the varying prox- emic zones expected by the groups create awkwardness until someone adapts to the needs of the others and either gives up some ground or extends the distance.
Distance preferences also vary by gender. Men tend to maintain larger per- sonal space bubbles than do women. Women are more likely to allow men or other women to come closer than men, and women will be more tolerant of
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temporary violations of their own space.19 Men take up more space with their bodies and their artifacts, a tendency that is often perceived as indicating power.
A recent study of 850 workers at midsize companies resulted in interesting gender differences regarding workspace preferences. Women voiced preferences for privacy, natural light, and the option to personalize their space. Men, on the other hand, spoke out strongly for just one environmental attribute: the ability to control the room temperature.20
Naturally, circumstances may artificially affect our use of zones. The classic example of this is the crowded elevator, where people allow others to invade per- sonal and intimate zones. Here, though, people will try to adapt by avoiding eye contact or blocking—that is, by folding the arms across the chest or putting up their briefcases as a sort of shield. If someone accidentally touches another, apolo- gies quickly follow.
When traditional zones need to be ignored for an extended period, people will stake out their territory. One way is to create even spacing between partici- pants, as when seated around a meeting table with movable seats. In other situa- tions, people will erect some sort of barrier to signal the limits of their own space. Watch at meetings around a conference table as people unconsciously arrange notebooks, jackets, coffee cups, and other business artifacts around the perime- ters of their territory. They are signaling where the boundaries of their personal space lie in that crowded environment. Similarly, students in a class typically occupy the same seat throughout the term, claiming it as “their” space and piling their belongings around them.
Permanent, or “fixed,” spaces such as cubicles or large desks often are perceived as barriers. It is rude to come behind the bosss desk or peek over the top of the cubicle. But semifixed spaces such as conference tables can connote cooperation and shared responsibility (see Figure 8–2), as the next section explains.
Strategic Use of Space
Managers should be aware that intruding into anothers territory without an invitation can be an annoyance or even a threat, no matter what a persons rank. Recognizing the boundaries of both fixed- and semifixed-feature spaces com- municates respect to the individual. Artifacts belonging to another individual
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should be regarded as personal. One should never rifle through a co-workers desk drawers for writing implements or sit on the edge of that persons desk.
Managers can use space to create an air of power and authority or an air of collegiality and respect. Everyone reads the environment for nonverbal clues. The amount of space allotted to
another, the amount of privacy that space entails, and where in the building that space is located can speak volumes about organi- zational power. Generally, more is better than less, bigger is better than smaller, new is better than old. In addition, the closer people are to the organizations leaders, the more power they are perceived by others to enjoy.
On the other hand, managers who value open communication will work in prox- imity to their subordinates and co-workers, will minimize status-filled artifacts such as heavy furniture, and will discourage territoriality. Indeed, contemporary organi- zations require that all employees share their “space” as a symbol of cooperation and teamwork. When Michael Bloomberg was elected mayor of New York City, he rearranged City Hall to resemble a giant open bullpen, eliminating private offices. This new look resembled the trading area at Salomon Brothers, the investment firm where he had been a partner. Again, his aim was to free the flow of information.
Office design can put the right people together. At wp01P, a British market- ing group, walls were removed and coffee areas created. Rather than assigning accountants and media people to separate floors, they work side by side in teams to ensure that they keep talking to each other.21
Some studies have noted differences in office space preferences among age groups. In one study, 40 percent of younger workers, commonly labeled Generation Y or Millenials (ages 18–29), preferred to work in open office plans; only 18 percent said they preferred cubicles with privacy panels. Older workers, on the other hand, said they worked best in private offices (45 percent); just 16 percent said they preferred collaborative spaces.22
PERSONAL APPEARANCE
What we wear says much about who we are, or at least who we want to be perceived as. Dress is an integral part of the first impression we form
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