Philosophy

Workbook (practice problems in critical thinking) Week 1 — introduction Identify the premises and conclusion of the arguments in the following passages. Note that in some cases it may be necessary to supply a missing premise or an unstated conclusion. 1. If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. 2. Since all men are animals, and since all animals die, all men must die. Dr. Moriarty is therefore doomed. 3. Caesar is emperor, so someone is. 4. Surely all penguins have feathers. After all, penguins are birds, and birds have feathers. 5. Portland is weird. If something it is weird, then it is supernatural. Therefore, Portland is supernatural. Descriptions and reports are distinct from arguments. State which of the following are arguments (not all of them are) and, if an argument is present, identify its premises and conclusion. 6. Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia are all provinces of the former Yugoslavia. 7. A copy of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is on my desk. You can read it if you want, but please return it when you’re finished. 8. Joe makes a good burger, and doesn’t charge much, so you get a good deal when you eat at Joe’s. 9. Robinson Crusoe saw the fresh footprint in the sand and knew that he was not alone on the island. 10. Freud divided the mind into three parts: the ego, the superego, and the id. He argued that the ego is a part of the id, and that the superego is more or less equivalent to the ‘conscience.’

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An argument may be stated informally or incompletely; this makes identifying it more difficult (determining its component parts, either as premises or conclusions). It also complicates its evaluation (the determination of its deductive validity or invalidity, soundness or unsoundness, or inductive strength or weakness). We want to state arguments in their explicit form. An argument is said to be explicit if: (a) all abbreviations have been removed (b) all idiomatic expressions have been removed (c) the premises are listed (d) the conclusion appears below the list of premises. The following are examples of an argument stated in explicit form (‘standard form’). 1. All men are mortal. 2. Socrates is a man. 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. ∴ Socrates is mortal.

In the following exercise, restate the argument in standard form. 11. Too many cooks spoil the broth. Get out of the kitchen while I make dinner! Any claim that does not contradict itself can (at least) be assumed to be true. An argument is said to be valid if, when we assume its premises to be true, its conclusion must also be true. An argument is said to be sound if (a) it is valid, and (b) its premises really are true — they are true in fact, and not merely assumed to be true (a hypothesis). Now suppose that we group all possible arguments into four categories, according to the factual truth and falsity of their premises and conclusions: group 1: all true premises and a true conclusion group 2: all true premises and a false conclusion group 3: some false premise and a true conclusion group 4: some false premises and a false conclusion Questions: 12. Are there arguments in all four groups? 13. Is there an argument that doesn’t fall into any of the four groups? 14. In which of the groups are there valid arguments? 15. In which of the groups are there invalid arguments? 16. In which of the groups are there sound arguments? 17. In which of the groups are there unsound arguments?

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An argument can be given a kind of informal proof of its invalidity if we can imagine a coherent situation in which its premises are true while its conclusion might still be false. In the following examples, all arguments are invalid. Using this ‘test by imagination,’ state conditions which explain why the arguments are invalid. 18. Murphy’s from Illinois, and people from Illinois have that solid Midwestern common sense. I’m sure Murphy’s a good man. 19. All socialists are proponents of socialized medicine. Some members of congress are proponents of socialized medicine. So, some members of congress are socialists. 20. If a man is rich, he can satisfy all his desires. Joe is a man, but not rich. So, Joe can’t satisfy all his desires. For the following, construct arguments with given features. 21. State an example of a valid deductive argument whose premises contain at least one falsehood and whose conclusion is factually true. 22. State an example of a valid deductive argument whose premises contradict one another. 23. State an example of a valid deductive argument whose conclusion, and one of whose premises, is unstated (yet implied in the context). Overview: Make sure you can define these terms: proposition, premise, conclusion, validity, and soundness.

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Week 2 — What is a fact? Some of the important ideas we are studying this week are the most basic, such as thinking, belief, knowledge, doubt, fact, fiction, hypothesis, evidence, truth, theories. Pick one of these topics and write a paragraph about some questions you have — e.g. what is an idea that you have heard about that you have some doubts about? What is something that people seem to think is a ‘fact’ that you have doubts about and do not see as ‘factual’? Or consider the reverse: what is something that you see as a ‘fact’ that most people in society seem to regard with doubt? How do you see the relation between fact and fiction — between what is true and stories we tell — also between truth and popular and influential ideas in society? What are some current controversies where people disagree about what is a ‘fact’ — for example the recent 2016 Presidential election? Do you think that both sides in the dispute have good reasons to support their factual claims? Why or why not? Consider the terms “post-fact,” “post-truth,” and “truthiness” — what do these terms say about contemporary society and the problem of critical thinking in our time?

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Week 3 — How arguments work Pick an editorial in the newspaper or an Internet site and (1) say whether or not there is an argument in it, (2) if there is an argument, lay out the argument clearly in its main parts, and (3) assess (evaluate) the argument. Translate the following sentences in SC (sentential calculus). 1. If neither Richard nor Quincy is going, Pam is. Answer: (~(R & Q) → P) 2. If Richard is going, then if Pam is staying, Quincy is going. 3. Moby Dick was a white whale. 4. Orson Welles once appeared on I Love Lucy. 5. William Shakespeare was William Shakespeare if and only if he wasn’t Francis Bacon. 6. Righteous indignation is the observance of a mean between envy and malice. 7. Malcolm believed in violence but he didn’t call it that; he called it intelligence. 8. If you promised then you should do it. 9. The Pythagoreans placed unity above all the other virtues; and they were wrong. 10. It’s true that ice melts. 11. You read with care or you learn little. 12. If there is smoke, there is fire. 13. Johnny may have popcorn or ice cream, but not both. 14. I told you what I think. Didn’t you listen? 15. Helen will camp if the moon is full, but otherwise not. 16. If I buy a new car, I’ll be saddled with high monthly payments, and if I buy a used car I’ll have high repair bills. I don’t want either. So I won’t buy a car. 17. I’ll go to school for the next ten years or I’ll work for the next ten years. If I go to school, I’ll lose the income I could have been earning but I ‘ll be prepared to do what I want to do. If I work, I’ll have the income but lose the opportunity to have the career I really want. I guess I have to choose between having money now or having the job I really want.

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Week 4 — Learning from Experience 1. Barack Obama won the 2012 presidential election held in the United States of America. If we ignore all the attitude changes before or after the election, and if we only consider the votes of individuals as evidence for the conclusion Most Americans prefer Mr. Obama to Mr. Romney, is this a weak or a strong induction? 2. Is the following induction very strong, strong, weak, or very weak? ‘The frequency of lung cancer in persons who have smoked a pack or more of cigarettes daily for a period of twenty years is eight times greater than it is for nonsmokers. Therefore, smoking is dangerous to one’s health.’ 3. State which of the following must be the case if A is a necessary condition for B. (a) Whenever A occurs, B occurs (b) Whenever A fails to occur, B fails to occur (c) Whenever B has occurred, A has occurred (d) Whenever B fails to occur, A fails to occur 4. State what you believe to be necessary conditions for phenomena of the following types: (a) being overweight (b) a suntan (c) suffocation (d) being pregnant 5. State which of the following must be the case if A is a sufficient condition for B. (a) Whenever A occurs, B occurs (b) Whenever A fails to occur, B fails to occur (c) Whenever B has occurred, A has occurred (d) Whenever B fails to occur, A fails to occur 6. State what you believe to be sufficient conditions for phenomena of the following types. (a) becoming a parent (b) living (c) being responsible (d) relieving boredom 7. The following are analogical arguments that rest on implied generalization. State the generalization from which the conclusion is drawn and evaluate the strength of the analogy. (a) There is only one head of the household, one leader of the pack, one captain of the ship, and one President of the United States. Therefore, there is only one God.

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(b) Thinking creatures on the earth all have faces. And aliens, described or pictured in science fiction, all have faces of some kind of another. Everything that thinks has a face. 8. The following passages contain analogies. Distinguish those that contain analogical arguments from those that make non-argumentative use of analogy. (a) The stock market is like a crazy roller-coaster ride. The index shoots up, then crashes, and then the whole thing starts again. (b) The Universe is populated by billions of galaxies, all of which are receding from one another, like raisins in an expanding pudding. (c) Just as a general moves miniature figures over a map before setting his troops in action, thinking is a kind of experimental configuration of energies. Thinking is a kind of planning. (d) Parents motivate children to solve mathematical problems when they insist that homework gets finished and work with their kids to explain difficulties. It seems like they could also motivate children to solve emotional problems, even though there is little focus on this in the schools. 9. The following are attempted ‘refutations by analogy.’ Evaluate the persuasiveness of the refutation. (a) President Obama appointed Mr. McDonald, from Procter and Gamble, to head the Veterans’ Administration, citing his expertise in business and his reputation as a ‘turn- around’ specialist. He might as well have nominated the ice skater Nancy Kerrigan, who is also quite good at turning around. (b) Pope Benedict XVI issued an injunction to Catholics prohibiting surrogate motherhood. But doesn’t this put Mary in a difficult situation? 10. Which of Mill’s methods apply to the following reasonings? (a) The Greeks and the Jews both owe their writing systems to the Phoenicians. Compare the Greek alpha, beta, gamma, to the Hebrew aleph, beth, gimmel. (b) If you apply yourself and persevere in your studies, you will earn a degree. (c) The industrial might of the North was simply too strong for Lee’s army. That’s why the South lost the Civil War. (d) “When all else fails, Watson, the impossible may well prove to be true.”

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Week 5 — Fallacious reasoning Each of the following examples contains or suggests an argument that contains an informal fallacy. For each argument, identify the fallacy and state why the conclusion does not follow from the premises. 1. There are cases in which capital punishment is morally justified. Even Abraham Lincoln declined to pardon a young soldier who had been condemned to death for desertion. 2. The Supreme Court has ruled that persons accused of crimes cannot be interrogated unless their lawyer is present. I think this shows more concern for the criminal than for the victim. Laws exist to protect law-abiding citizens, not criminals. The police have a duty to get the facts, and one way to do that is to question the criminal. The Supreme Court’s ruling is simply wrong. 3. The idea of treating frostbite by putting snow on it is absurd. It is one of the many folk remedies that originated among poor and ignorant people who had no access to competent medical help. 4. Each autumn, as soon as the frost comes, the leaves begin to turn. Some years, when the first frost is very severe, the leaves seem to turn almost overnight, and the entire countryside explodes in glorious hues of crimson and gold. 5. Professor: ‘Your assignment for next week is as follows. First, read the three essays handed out in class. Second, write a brief summary of each. Third, identify the one you liked least well. Fourth, write an essay describing the defect in your character to which you attribute this dislike.’ 6. Man to bank teller: ‘I’d like to cash a check.’ Teller: ‘Do you have any identification?’ Man: ‘Yes, my friend here will identify me.’ Teller: ‘But I don’t know your friend.’ Man: ‘No problem. I’ll introduce you.’ 7. John Stuart Mill: “Each person’s happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons.” 8. Jesus said, “The poor ye always have with you.” Thus it is obviously futile to attempt to eradicate poverty, since the Lord said that trying to do this is doomed to failure. 9. Laws against discrimination are ridiculous. We could not survive even for a moment without discrimination! We discriminate between foods we do and don’t like, between music we do and don’t like, between people we do and don’t like–we can’t live without it, and it is wrong to expect us to do so.

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10. Chinese spokesperson: ‘Don’t presume to lecture us about human rights. How do you treat minorities in your own country? What are you doing for Native Americans, or for African Americans? Put your own house in order before you tell us what to do!’ The following passages contain fallacies of relevance. Identify the fallacy. 11. The Golden Rule is basic to every system of ethics ever devised, and everyone accepts it in some form or other. It is, therefore, an undeniably sound moral principle. 12. No mathematician has ever been able to demonstrate the truth of the “last theorem” of Fermat. It is therefore false. 13. Of course there is a Santa Claus. But he doesn’t bring any presents to children who don’t believe in him. 14. Mr. Scrooge, I can hardly manage to feed my children on what you have been paying me. And my youngest child, Tim, needs an operation if he is ever to walk again. So I deserve a raise! 15. “Mysticism is one of the great forces of world history. For religion is nearly the most important thing in the world, and religion never remains for long untouched by mysticism.” (J. McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion) The following passages contain fallacies of ambiguity. Identify the fallacy. 16. “Seeing that the eye and the hand and foot and every one of our members has some obvious function, must we not believe in a like manner that a human being has a function over and above these particular functions?” (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics) 17. The Bach children were both numerous and musical. 18. Improbable events happen every day, but what happens every day is precisely what is very probable. Therefore improbable events are very probable events. 19. The Delphic Oracle said to Croesus, King of Lydia, when Croesus asked the oracle if he should attack the Persia and its King, Cyrus the Great: ‘If Croesus goes to war with Cyrus, he will destroy a mighty kingdom.’ 20. Traditional definition of anthropology: ‘The science of man embracing woman.’ The following fallacies are of different types. For each case, identify the fallacy. 21. Everything in the universe serves a function that goes beyond itself. So the universe itself must serve a function that goes beyond itself.

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22. Isn’t it true that all students who get A grades study hard? So if you want me to study hard, Professor, give me an A! 23. The President must be a good friend to the working people of this country, because he told them so last night, and no one would lie to his friends. 24. “If you’re not part of the solution then you’re part of the problem.” (E. Cleaver) 25. Nothing is unthinkable. For to think of nothing is simply not to think at all. Overview: In your experience, what role do informal fallacies play in everyday speech? Do people make logical mistakes frequently, or is this more of a rare thing that only happens occasionally? Have you ever caught yourself using poor reasoning? Is it important to reason correctly? — is it OK sometimes to reason poorly? — how does a person check herself or himself to make sure that you are thinking correctly about something?

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Week 6 — Emotional Intelligence Think of a time when you lost your sense of humor and made a mistake as a result. What relations do you see between doing things the ‘right’ way and keeping your cool? What are some strategies for keeping your sense of humor when things get stressful? Discuss the ideas of emotional illiteracy, emotional growth, schooling the emotions, and re-educating the emotional brain. A sarcastic ‘thanks,’ a grateful ‘thanks’ and an angry ‘thanks’ have the same wording but the emotional tone is different. Discuss the importance of not just knowing what the other person is saying, but understanding the person’s tone of voice. What role does understanding ‘tone of voice’ play in trying to be a careful and critical thinker? Does critical thinking require an understanding of not just syntax and meaning but tone? What are some important and frequent tones of voice that come up in everyday life? In politics? In marriage and relationships? In parenting? In being parented? In school?

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Week 7 — Persuasion The following are argument sketches subject to contextual counterarguments of three forms: no contender, false contender, defending the incumbent. Say which counter- argument applies to each case, and why (adapted from Purtill, 1971). 1. A student is given the privilege of making up an examination during a vacation period and is told to find his own proctor. He is told that a proctor may be a student because no faculty members are available. He turns in the examination. “Who was your proctor?” he is asked. “I proctored the exam myself,” he answers. 2. A group of friends sits around a table discussing fidelity and infidelity in marriage. A woman says: “Not a single wife in this city is faithful to her husband.” She explains that by a faithful wife she means a wife who thinks of her husband every single waking moment. Since no wife thinks of her husband that often, no wife is faithful. 3. God must exist for by God I mean the ground of being. The ground of being must exist if anything does. So God exists. 4. Every action is selfish because a selfish action is one from which a person derives some advantage. No one would do anything without getting something out of it. 5. I am a righteous because I am a Democrat, and by ‘righteous’ I mean ‘Democratic.’ Analyze the following situations. Identify the likely presence of psychological defense (scapegoating, projection, introjection, denial, stereotyping). 6. Sylvia notices a slight lump on the back of her neck. She decides it’s probably a cyst and forgets about it. 7. Asked how he felt about losing the hard-fought campaign, the candidate replied that he was now “in the full-time grandfather business.” 8. Joe thought his girl Sally was the prettiest girl in the world until his friend Sam laughed at him. 9. Veronica takes more than an hour to put on her makeup before going to school. She complains to her mother about a classmate, Betty, who, she says, is always flirting. 10. Jim said he thought the U.S. should stay clear of the situation in the Middle East. “Those people have been killing each other for thousands of years!”

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11. Clarence has worked hard to rid his community of smut—his Good Government Committee has banned Playboy and Penthouse from local stores. But he gets irritated when he watches the news. “I’m sick of the liberal media! Who are they to dictate to me their moral beliefs!” 12. Howard considers himself a liberal and supports free speech—crazy political views, pornography, even obscene political criticism. But he draws a line at the American Nazi party. “I don’t have to listen to this garbage, and neither does anyone else.” For the following questions, write a brief answer summarizing your position. 13. What is the difference between psychological guilt and actual guilt? 14. If a democratic community achieves a consensus on a controversial issue, should the majority supersede minority views? Consider a problem case: the teaching of evolution. 15. Is “secular humanism” a religion? Overview: How do you stand on the question about the use of tricks, message blockers and ‘priming’ (or mood setting techniques) in argument? Is it OK to win an argument by using rhetorical tricks and lies? Or is it more important to reason fairly, whether you win the argument or not? Does it depend on the situation? Is Aristotle right that eristic argument (trying to win) and dialectic argument (trying to find the truth) are radically different kinds of pursuit?

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Week 8 — Censorship Pick a current censorship issue from here in the United States or elsewhere in the world — what are the issues at stake — what arguments are being put forward by opposite sides in the controversy? What (if any) are some reasonable kinds of censorship? Should governments lie to their citizens to protect them? Should parents lie to their children to protect them? Should the media be more heavily or less heavily censored? How can a person tell the difference between censorship in the public interest (if there is such a thing) and censorship that is paternalistic and overbearing (which tends to take people’s agency away from them)?

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Last weeks of the class Translate: If Russia intervenes in Syria, then if the United States acts to protect its interests in the Middle East, either there will be a confrontation between Russia and the United States or Israel will act as a surrogate for the United States. Israel will act as a surrogate if and only if it is assured of unlimited supplies of American weapons. If the United States meets this condition, however, the friendly Arab States will turn against the United States; and the United States cannot allow that to happen. Therefore, if Russia intervenes in Syria and the United States acts to protect its interests in the Middle East, there will be a confrontation between the two superpowers. The following passages argue for conclusions in ways that should provoke questions. For each example below, state some questions relevant to the issue raised in the argument. What is your response to the argument? 1. God is being greater than which cannot be conceived. If we compare a being who does not exist to a being who actually exists, the latter is greater. Therefore, God must exist. 2. Children are not born knowing how to cooperate with others or sacrifice themselves for others. They are naturally selfish instead. They must be taught to overcome mere instinct in order to act from altruism. But spiritual values are necessary to teach altruism. Therefore, moral education has to be based on religious teachings. 3. One-man one-vote democracy ignores the rights of minority populations whose representation can never equal that of the dominant group. A majority can tyrannize a minority. A truly just society must regulate its governmental policies so that injustices are addressed and redressed. Therefore, democracies should amend their constitutions to increase the power of minorities–for example, through proportional representation.

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