21 May WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING REPRESENTS THE FUNDAMENTAL STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
How does a theory develop? It is the product of the scientific method being
applied over and over again. The scientific method is a process used by scientists to
develop a reliable and accurate representation of the natural world. It is based on
observations rather than belief. The scientific method starts when you ask a question
about something you observe. As Isaac Asimov (1920-1992), the prolific American
author and biochemist best known for his science fiction stories, once observed, “The
most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not
‘Eureka!’ but ‘That’s funny…’ “. In response to observations a hypothesis is proposed. A
hypothesis is a tentative explanation of the possible cause of what was observed. It has
the important characteristic that a scientific test can prove the hypothesis untrue. This
tentative explanation allows one to make predictions about what should happen under
certain circumstances. These predictions are then tested by experimentation. If the
results are inconsistent with the predictions, and thus do not support the hypothesis, then
it is rigorously questioned, and either rejected or modified to be consistent with the new
core ideas
frontier ideas
fringe ideas
4Adapted from E. Scott, Science News, August 1, 2009, p. 32.
12 CHAPTER 1 READING, WRITING AND DOING SCIENCE
observations hypothesis predictions
experiments
theory
repeatedly
consistent
results
inconsistent
results,
modify
hypothesis
observations. If the predicted results are obtained, then they add support to the
hypothesis, but they do not prove that the hypothesis is correct. Generally, a hypothesis
can never be proven correct, only disproved. As more and more results from experiments
lend support to a hypothesis, it becomes so well established it is recognized as a theory.
These steps in the scientific method are outlined in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Elements of the scientific method
The scientific method is quite commonly used by non-scientists in everyday
problem solving. Suppose, for example, you come home late at night and when you flick
the wall switch your light does not come on as expected. In order to get to the bottom of
this dilemma you think about the possible causes for this problem and check out each one
in turn. This process is equivalent to making an observation, constructing various
hypotheses and doing experiments to test your hypotheses. Your list of possible
explanations, along with an appropriate test for each, might look like the following.
CHAPTER 1 READING, WRITING AND DOING SCIENCE 13
Observation: Table light does not come on when the wall switch is flipped.
Possible explanation Method of testing
Light is unplugged. Check wire and plug from lamp.
Light bulb is loose. Tighten bulb.
Light bulb is burned out. Replace light bulb.
Circuit breaker is tripped. Test electrical outlet with other items.
There is a general power outage. Check if other electrical items work.
Wiring from lamp is defective. Check continuity of circuit with
ohmmeter.
Gremlins in the electrical circuit are
unhappy with you because you
continually leave the light on and waste
energy so they have disabled the light.
Not testable.
You may quickly determine there is no general power outage and start to test the
other possible explanations. If you find that the light works when you replace the bulb, it
is this explanation that becomes accepted. Given that the last explanation in the table
above cannot be tested (Can you think of any test that would support this explanation?), it
is, consequently, not a valid scientific hypothesis. This does not mean it is incorrect, it
simply means that it cannot be supported using the scientific method and hence does not
represent science.
Scientific research is cumulative and progressive. A scientist often does not
simply rely on his or her own observations to propose a hypothesis or to design
experiments to test a hypothesis. The extraordinary English physicist and mathematician
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) once wrote, “If I have seen further it is only by standing
on the shoulders of giants.” It is very important to learn what other research has been
done and the results of those experiments. Scientific research results are disseminated
through publications and public presentations. In order to publish one’s results a scientist
usually submits a manuscript that is reviewed by other scientists to ensure that the
14 CHAPTER 1 READING, WRITING AND DOING SCIENCE
research is sound. This peer review checks to see that there were proper controls for the
experiment, that the research took into account related work in designing the experiments
and interpreting the results, that the results were reproducible and any bias was
minimized. If a quantitative (numerical) result is obtained, then its uncertainty must be
properly estimated.
Published results and conclusions serve as invitations to further testing by the
scientific community. Only after many repeated confirmations, usually over a significant
period of time, are such ideas adopted by most scientists. In this way the scientific
method is unprejudiced. However, remember that these ideas can be brought into
question at any time if some inconsistent results are observed. The chemistry
explanations presented in this text are widely accepted by scientists because there have
been no observations that run counter to these theories. In this course you will be
studying science knowledge in the innermost circle (Fig. 1.1).
In some cases it is not possible to test a hypothesis directly with experiments, so
the hypothesis is evaluated by analyzing existing information. For example, in trying to
identify when and explain how woolly mammoths and other large animals died out in the
Americas, paleoecologists and zooarchaeologists study fossil samples, do carbon dating
and analyze mitochrondrial DNA recovered from permafrost to find clues in support of a
possible explanation.5 Astronomers and physicists studying the very beginning of our
universe face similar limitations. In some situations more than one logical explanation is
consistent with all that has been observed. In this case, there is much debate as scientists
continue to seek more evidence and refine their explanations.
5Note that these methods of analysis, such as using fossils and carbon dating, have been
developed through rigorous scientific testing.
CHAPTER 1 READING, WRITING AND DOING SCIENCE 15
Millions and millions of scientific observations have been made. Generally the
more important ones get published in some form and are known to other scientists and
non-scientists. When a consistent pattern of results is observed over time it is often
expressed as a law. A scientific law is a general summary of observations (facts).
Unlike a scientific theory, it simply states what is likely to happen, not why. Scientific
laws are usually integral components of a scientific theory. Scientific principle and rule
are terms that are often used interchangeably with law. In most cases the choice of term
appears to depend on historical convention.
As in all areas where not only inquiry, discovery and explanation, but also
competition, are involved, one concern about the scientific method is the issue of fraud.
Scientists who are seeking recognition or financial gain may fake results or distort data.
There are many known examples of this in science. However, since important ideas gain
Check for Understanding 1.1 Solutions
1. Which of the following represents the fundamental steps of the scientific
method?
A. observation ! law ! hypothesis ! theory.
B. observation ! hypothesis ! experiment ! theory.
C. hypothesis ! theory ! experiment ! law.
D. observation ! theory ! experiment ! hypothesis.
2. Characterize each of the following as an example of a scientific law,
scientific theory, observation, or none of these.
a) The liquid in a glass of water is composed of molecules.
b) Flammable materials always contain oxygen.
c) When a can of soda pop is opened, a fizzing sound is heard.
d) The force of gravity between two objects increases as they get closer.
16 CHAPTER 1 READING, WRITING AND DOING SCIENCE
acceptance only after a given result has been obtained many times by many different
people, the disciplines in science are self-correcting. Fraud may persist for some time,
especially in medical science where the potential financial gains are very significant.
However, as a rule, eventually such deception is uncovered.
Another concern is that science is done by an exclusive club of like-minded
individuals and that anyone challenging the prevailing or mainstream explanations – the
“status quo” – is marginalized. It is, in fact, often very difficult to get a new and
important scientific idea accepted. When new ideas are proposed, the scientists
proposing them use their evidence to make the strongest case possible. Their colleagues,
in turn, challenge that evidence and reasoning because that’s the scientific method.
While sometimes unpleasant, the rigor of this process in science is what distinguishes it
from a debate you may have with your friends about something like lowering the
drinking age. The most reasoned and widely explanatory ideas win out because scientists
are very demanding in their review of each other’s work. For example, the suggestion
that chelation therapy6 is an effective way to treat autism has been met with widespread
skepticism because most of the support is anecdotal (based on causal observations) rather
than based on rigorous and reproducible scientific studies involving controlled testing.
Until such supporting evidence is provided, it is unlikely that this idea will gain much
acceptance in the medical or wider scientific community.
Nonetheless, science is open to new ideas even if they are initially challenged or
ignored by the scientific community. Take, for example, the work done by Barbara
McClintock (Fig. 1.3). Her research on corn in the 1940s and 1950s showed that
sequences of DNA can change positions within a chromosome (transposition) resulting in
mutations. This discovery went against the accepted view that DNA was stable and
unchanging. Initially her research was met with such skepticism that, after several years,
she stopped publishing detailed reports of her work. As new technology was developed
and other scientists verified her revolutionary ideas, Barbara McClintock’s work was
6Chelation therapy is the use of chemicals to scavenge metals from the body. It is used,
for example, to treat acute lead poisoning.
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